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The purpose of this paper is to examine entrepreneurship in Egypt, an Islamic society in transition to a free market, and makes general comparisons with entrepreneurship in the United States, a secular society with a highly developed market economy.

American and Egyptian entrepreneurial differences are discussed within a number of themes related to cultural and environmental factors: the transition to a free market including transparency; money and its cultural meanings; locus of control; attitude towards risk; and work‐life equilibrium.

This paper argues that social and economic changes and environmental adversity, such as competition, which accompany the transition to a free market, create pressure on the emergent market (Egypt) to adopt a model of environment that is hospitable to entrepreneurs who seek to create new organizations or implement change through new organizational and programmatic initiatives.

Managers in an emergent market who are trying to improve competitiveness and efficiency should be aware of how most people from specific cultures value money, and also be aware of cultural differences with regard to the importance and the role of money.

It may be that insufficient attention is given to the relationship between entrepreneurial characteristics and national culture, as well as structural elements influenced by or directly related to culture. This paper attempts to bring some light to this issue.

The purpose of this paper is to identify and discuss important predictors of subjective well‐being (SWB) that are relevant to explain well‐being as experienced by individuals in developing countries. The paper will use Egypt as example of an economy in transition to free market. Egypt is the largest country in Africa and Middle East and it is an example of an emerging market that struggles to achieve political stability and economic prosperity.

This paper is based on data from international survey programs such as: Freedom in the World. Available at: www.freedomhouse.org; World Database of Happiness. Erasmus University Rotterdam. Available at: www.worlddatabaseofhappiness.eur.nl/statnat; Political Regimes Characteristics and Transitions. Available at: www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/polity/. Findings – The factors of absolute income, relative income and economic justice, freedom, human rights, social capital, and population density help to explain national SWB in developing countries and the SWB differences between rich and poor countries.

Based on the literature findings that well‐being enhances work productivity; this paper strongly argues that managers in developing and in transition to free market countries should adopt the value of enhancing well‐being and happiness among their workers. Managers should create the appropriate conditions and work design and should also turn their attention to understand and monitor well‐being indicators. Some limitations of the existing literature is that it is still not completely understood why some factors, such as religion, and their moderators affect well‐being of societies and which factors are universal and which are cultural contextual.

The concept of well‐being has rarely been discussed in the management literature compared to the emerging attention to this concept in economic, psychology and sociology literature. Published research argues that economic measurements of national progress and people well‐being, by means of gross domestic product or per capita income, are not sufficiently comprehensive and that individuals' subjective satisfaction or SWB may be added as a more encompassing framework for the quality of life factors. In addition, limited research has been done on SWB in developing countries.

This paper aims to review the growing literature on the issues and variables which are impacting the determination of CEO pay for Fortune 500 and other large organizations. While many previous researchers have focused on agency theory, CEO power, market forces and board of directors governance as the most relevant issues, the authors seek to propose a general model for determining CEO pay which has a more comprehensive set of variables.

The paper draws on existing literature to derive the variables for the proposed model.

The bulk of the literature reviewed takes an Anglo‐American point‐of‐view on the best way to manage CEO pay. There is a need for a more “balanced” and broader perspective on how to motivate CEO behavior with the needs of other stakeholders.

The paper provides new insights into the dynamic nature of CEO motivation and governance and by designing a general model, integrates divergent points of view into a more holistic body of knowledge.

The purpose of this paper is to compare “micro” enterprise (0-9 employees) to “small” enterprise (10-49 employees) family businesses with regard to 12 important managerial characteristics in eight countries: Argentina, Croatia, Egypt, France, Kosovo, Kuwait, Serbia, and the USA (n=601).

The research methodology was survey research. To statistical test 12 hypotheses, MANCOVA was run to compare differences between micro and small family business, while controlling for years in business.

Six significant differences were: “small” firms are more likely to employ non-family member managers, are more likely to engage in the formulation of succession plans, are more likely to utilize outside advisory services, make greater use of sophisticated financial management methods, and have a more formal management style than “micro” firms; but the influence of the founder is greater in “micro” firms.

For practitioners and consultants the findings of this study should enable family business owner/managers, and their advisors, to better understand the possible impacts of moving from a “micro” level to a “small” size level, and thus lead to more effective family business management.

This research fills a gap in the literature, as there has been minimal prior research with the specific focus of comparing “micro” vs “small.” Thus, it develops a foundation for further study in this area.

While family firms constitute a highly important component of most countries' economies, and in many countries a sizable portion of these family businesses are owned and managed by women, there has been minimal study of gender issues in family business ownership and management. The purpose of this paper is to fill this gap.

The research design was self‐reported survey research, which is the most commonly used methodology in family business research and for small business and entrepreneurship quantitative research.

In contrast to early (pre‐1980) gender comparisons in management and entrepreneurship, and in support of the majority of more recent studies, this investigation found no significant relationships between the gender of family business owner‐managers and ten management characteristic variables in a sample of 593 family businesses in six countries.

These findings add to the limited and currently inconclusive body of knowledge regarding gender issues specifically in family business, and more generally in entrepreneurship and management.

The purpose of this paper is to explore awareness of social entrepreneurship amongst Egyptian students and to determine what is needed to create more graduate social entrepreneurs.

The theoretical framework is Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior. Data collection is a questionnaire survey of 183 of the 2,000 undergraduates at the British University in Egypt, drawn from the University's three faculties.

The paper finds that, although three organizations, Ashoka Arab World, The Schwab Foundation and Yes Egypt, do much to support and promote social enterprise in Egypt, students are confused over what a social entrepreneur is or does and are largely unaware of existing Egyptian social entrepreneurs. The majority want a career in a multi‐national enterprise but a sizeable number are interested in establishing a social enterprise.

The sample is small and limited to one institution but the findings corroborate theory and indicate a need for both greater awareness (information/knowledge), and support/encouragement.

There is a need to change the Egyptian education system to encourage students to think and behave more entrepreneurially, at the same time equipping them with the skills to start their own ventures on graduation.

To promote a more socially aware, sustainable economy, Egyptian support organizations need to work with the country's universities to change the curriculum and the way students are taught.

This research is one of the first academic studies on entrepreneurship in Egypt. It will interest academics, educational policy makers and those concerned with the promotion of entrepreneurship.

The purpose of the paper is to showcase the significant achievements of Egypt's scientists in the 20th century across various fields of study such as medicine, physics, chemistry, biology, math, geology, astronomy and engineering. The paper highlights the struggles and successes of these scientists, as well as the cultural, social and political factors that influenced their lives and work. The aim is to inspire young people to pursue careers in science and make their own contributions to society by presenting these scientists as role models for hard work and dedication. Ultimately, the paper seeks to promote the importance of science and its impact on society.

The purpose of this review is to present the scientific biographies of Egypt's most distinguished scientists, primarily in the field of Natural Sciences, in a balanced and comprehensive manner. The work is objective, honest and abstract, avoiding any bias or exaggeration. The author provides a clear and concise methodology, including a brief introduction to the scientist and their field of study, an explanation of their major contributions, the impact of their work on society, any challenges or obstacles faced during their career and their lasting legacy. The aim is to showcase the important achievements of these scientists, their impact on their respective fields and to inspire future generations to pursue scientific careers.

The group of outstanding scientists in 20th century Egypt were shaped by various factors, including familial upbringing, education, society, political and cultural atmosphere and state support for scientific research. These scientists made significant contributions to various academic disciplines, including medicine, physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics and engineering. Their impact on their communities and cultures has received international acclaim, making them role models for future generations of scientists and researchers. The history of these scientists highlights the importance of educational investments and supporting scientific research to foster innovation and social progress. The encyclopedia serves as a useful tool for students, instructors and education professionals, preserving Egypt's scientific heritage and honouring the scientists' outstanding accomplishments.

The encyclopedia preserves Egypt's scientific heritage, which has been overlooked for political or other reasons. It is a useful tool for a variety of readers, including students, instructors and education professionals, and it offers insights into universally relevant scientific success factors as well as scientific research methodologies. The encyclopedia honours the outstanding scientific accomplishments of Egyptian researchers and their contributions to the world's scientific community.

The practical implications of this paper are several. First, it highlights the importance of education, family upbringing and societal support for scientific research in fostering innovation and social progress. Second, it underscores the need for continued funding and support for scientific research to maintain and build upon the accomplishments of past generations of scientists. Third, it encourages young people to pursue scientific careers and make their own contributions to society. Fourth, it preserves the scientific heritage of Egypt and honors the contributions of its outstanding scientists. Finally, it serves as a useful tool for students, instructors and education professionals seeking to understand the factors underlying scientific success and research methodologies.

The social implications of the paper include promoting national pride and cultural identity, raising awareness of the importance of education and scientific research in driving social progress, inspiring future generations of scientists and researchers, reducing socioeconomic disparities and emphasizing the role of society, politics and culture in shaping scientific researchers' personalities and interests.

The paper's originality/value lies in its comprehensive documentation of the scientific biographies of Egypt's most prominent scientists in the 20th century, providing unique insights into the factors that contributed to their development and their impact across various academic disciplines. It preserves Egypt's scientific heritage and inspires future generations of scientists and researchers through the promotion of educational investments and scientific research. The encyclopedia serves as a useful tool for education professionals seeking to understand scientific success factors and research methodologies, emphasizing the importance of supportive and inclusive environments for scientific development.